The Unangan people were called "Aleut" by the
Russians and that name became the name used almost universally
in western languages, even though it was not the name these
people used for themselves. The name, "Unangan", originally
referred to the native people of the Eastern Aleutians, but is
now often used to refer to all the people indigenous to the
Aleutian Islands.3 There doesn't seem to be a
consensus about the origin of the name "Aleut". In 1907, Hodge
said: "Aleut. A branch of the Esquimauan family
inhabiting the Aleutian ids. and the N. side of Alaska pen.,
w. of Ugashik r. The origin of the term is obscure. A
reasonable supposition is given by Engel (quoted by Dall in
Smithson. Contrib., xxii, 1878) that Aliut is identical with
the Chukchi word aliat, 'island.' The early Russian explorers
of Kamchatka heard from the Chukchi of islanders, aliuit,
beyond the main Asian shore, by which the Chukchi meant the
Diomede islanders; but when the Russians found people on the
Aleutian ids. they supposed them to be those referred to by
the Chukchi and called them by the Chukchi name, and the
Chukchi often adopt the Russian name, Aleut, for themselves,
though asserting that it is not their own."1
There is a movement among the Unangan to reclaim their
ancient name and stop using the term "Aleut".3 The
written legacy of several centuries that uses the Russian term,
however, is very strong so that few people outside the region
understand the term Unangan but do understand the term Aleut.
Here we will use both Unangan and Aleut terms. Since the
Unangan had no written language before the arrival of the
Russians in 1741 and only began writing in Russian script in the
19th century, Russian words have been adopted for some common
objects, such as baidarka (kayak, "iqyax" in Aleut); baidar
(large skin boat, "nigilax" in Aleut); barabara
(semi-subterranean house, "ulax" in Unangan); bidarki (a
chiton); banya or banyu (steam bath) etc.
The above population graph shows very clearly
the devasting consequences on the Unangan population by of the
Russian conquest of the Aleutian Islands. Scores of villages
were wiped out or abandoned and chaos reigned during the early
years of the occupation. During these early years there was no
official Russian government nor Orthodox Church presence.
Rather, the first wave of Russians consisted of Siberian
"promyshleniki", the equivalent of the American West's mountain
men, who were intent on adventure and quick fortunes from animal
furs. They used brutality and firearms to force the Aleuts to
hunt sea otter pelts for them. The details of those atrocities
will not be covered here but the extant information on this
period can be read in the excellent account of the Russian
occupation of the Unimak Area by Lydia T. Black.4
In 1898 Petroff had this to say about Unimak Island: "Passing to the westward from Belkovsky the traveler first
notices the snow-covered peaks of two volcanoes on Oonimak
Island, of which the larger is Mount Shishaldin, rising to a
height of 8,000 feet. Smoke rises constantly from the crater
of this mount, and shocks of earthquake occur very frequently.
The island is uninhabited, and has been in that condition for
the greater part of the present century, though it is richer
than many other islands of the Aleutian chain in natural means
of sustaining life. Foxes are quite plentiful here, and sea
otters frequent the reefs and points, but ever since (nearly
one hundred years ago) almost all the inhabitants of four or
five populous villages were massacred by the Russian
promyshleniks a superstitious dread seems to prevent the Aleut
from making a permanent home at Oonimak."2
Click on above map for larger
version.
The Russian occupation of the Unimak Area brought about
large population displacements and migrations of the Unanagan
people. The above map summarizes some of the basic population
movements. Most large Aleut settlements were located on the north
side of Unimak Island and lower Alaska Peninsula where there were
rich subsistence resources. After the violence of the early
Russian period and the forced entry into the market economy, most
original Unangan villages were abandoned and the people moved to
Morzhovoi and Belkofski which were locations that met the needs of
the Russian sailing ships and trading posts.4
The graph on the left shows what is known
about the historical village population trends in the Unimak
area. Because of the chaotic conditions of the early Russian
occupation period, no accurate data exists for Unimak area
Unangan villages, nor most of their locations. This graph shows
that the consolidation and abandonment of Unangan villages was
well underway by around 1800.
Sanak is the only Unangan village that retained its
original name throughout the historical period. The
other Unangan villages were generally known by their Russian
names since it was through Bishop Veniaminov and other Russians
that information on the Aleut villages was put into writing.
The Russian maps and charts of the time never located and named
the villages but were mostly concerned with better charts for
navigation. Morzhovoi and Belkofski were created and settled by
the Russian administration for better management of their fur
and ivory trade, where no significant Unangan villages existed
before.
After the American acquisition of Alaska in 1867,
there was a large increase in the populations of the remaining
Aleut villages through immigration from other Aleut villages and
a few European immigrants. This population shift reflects the
huge impact of the sea otter harvest during the American
period. But, this harvest was highly exploitative and brought
about the extermination of the sea otter locally and therefore
the crash of the village populations that depended upon the
hunt. Some of the Unanagan villages were able to survive into
the early 1940s by trapping fox and other land animals, but when
the fur market crashed after the Great Depression, the villages
lost population and were finally abandoned. People from these
villages moved mostly to King Cove and Sand Point, but some
moved outside the region.
In the 20th century, new villages were created
at locations for the harvest and processing of local cod and
salmon resources. These villages were Company Harbor (old
Sanak), Pauloff Harbor, Ikatan, King Cove and False Pass. The
disappearance of codfish in the late 1930s meant the eventual
abandonment of Company Harbor and Pauloff Harbor. Then, changes
in the salmon industry spelled the end of Ikatan and heavily
impacted the sole surviving village, False Pass. In general, the
history and fate of the Unimak area villages closely parallels
the commercial harvest of the local renewable resource base.4
By the last quarter of the 20th century, all original
Unangan/Aleut villages had been abandoned in the
Unimak area. The local subsistence economy, which had endured
for about 5,000 years, was finally brought to an end by the rise
of the export economy and globalization.
Click on the above graph for a larger version.
Aleut Cultural/Social Change after Russian conquest:
"By the end of the 1700's, Aleuts were no longer in control of
their own lives. Aleuts' precontact adaptive mechanisms for
coping with changing conditions were wholly inadequate for
handling the kind and magnitude of changes forced upon them by
the Russian fur hunters. Imposed new social forms, religious
institutions, and material culture had changed nearly the entire
fabric of Aleut life. However, because the logistics and costs
of foreign supply of foodstuffs to the Aleutians were
prohibitive, the necessity of turning to the sea for the bulk of
subsistence resources continued. To this day, the subsistence
economy, especially in terms of the kinds of foods and resources
utilized, the importance of cooperation and sharing, and the use
of seasonal susbistence camps, remains the Aleuts' strongest tie
to their pre-Russian past."17
"By the 1820's, some Aleut houses were built mostly above
ground and had windows, side entries, interior metal stoves, and
other modern trappings."17
The Aleut/Unangan acculturation process from
the Russian period through the modern American period was
studied by Veltre. This important study covers not only the
Russian period, it also considers the impact of the World War II
relocation of many Aleuts and the significance of ANCSA in
empowering the communities in the Aleut region.19
Archeological work on an Aleut village site on Unimak
Island:
An Archeological study of an Unangan village site on Unimak
Island called Agayadan was been done by Brian
Hoffman in 1994-97. In summary, the study found that:
1) Agayadan had about 20 communal houses.
2) Site occupied between the years CE ~1300 - 1750.
3) House sizes ranged from 5.8 X 5.6m with 3 side rooms to 14.9
X 6.6m with 14 side rooms.
4) Site had an "Ataagin" or palisaded stronghold on high vantage
point above village.
5) Agayadan was abandoned with a plan; the usable tools and
building materials were salvaged and removed.
6) Each house had these special features: a) hearth, b)
rock-lined basin, c) basin, d) storage pits, e) interior trench.
7) Family compartments were located in shallow interior trenches
along walls.
8) Estimated two to four family compartments associated with
each hearth complex.
"These dwellings were each occupied by multiple families who
cooperated in some economic activities (heating the house and
cooking some meals), yet operated independently in other
activities (storage of surplus)."13 Please see the
complete study for important details.
An historical overview of archeological research in the
Unangan/Aleut region of Alaska was done in 2010 by
Veltre and Smith:
"The Aleut region has the longest history of anthropological
and archaeological investigations in all of Alaska. Although
predating formal anthropological studies, the extensive
ethnographic account by the Russian Orthodox priest Ivan
Veniaminov in the early 1800s laid a solid foundation for
scientific archaeological and anthropological investigations
over the next 100 years, including those by William Healy Dall
in the 1870s, Waldemar Jochelson from 1909 to 1910, and Aleš
Hrdlicˇka in the 1930s. Following World War II, research
continued, and the evolving political picture in Alaska gave
Aleut people increasing influence and control over such
efforts."18
Culture of the Unangan People
Click on thumbnail image to see
a larger version.
The above prints are from Captain James Cook's third voyage on the
HMS Resolution when he visited Unalaska in 1778.
These prints are courtesy of the National Library of Australia.
Unangan Customs and
Social Life
The customs of the Aleut people were described in
detail by the Russian Priest, Ivan Veniaminov, in
about 1840. Father Veniaminov was the resident Russian Orthodox
priest in Unalaska and took great interest in promoting the
welfare of the Unangan people. He was also a good ethnographer,
way ahead of his times, and a trained, unbiased observer. A
portion of Veniaminov's work dealing with Unangan/Aleut customs
and culture was translated by Ivan Petroff in 1884 and can be
read here.
"Saluting the Light", was a custom that was
performed by grown males in the Aleut community:
"This early custom is described as follows :
The grown men were in the habit of emerging from their huts
as soon as day was breaking, naked, and standing with their
face to the east, or wherever the dawn appeared, and having
rinsed their mouths with water saluted the light and the wind;
after this ceremony they would proceed to the rivulet
supplying them with drinking water, strike the water several
times with the palm of their hands, saying:
“I am not asleep; I am alive; I greet with you the
life-giving light, and I will always live with thee." While
saying this they also had their faces turned to the east,
lifting the right arm so as to throw the water, dripping from
it, over their bodies. Then throwing water over the head and
washing face and hands, they waded into the stream up to their
knees and awaited the first appearance of the sun. Then they
would carry water to their homes for use during the day. ln
localities where there was no stream the ceremony was
performed on the sea-beach in the same manner, with the
exception that they carried no water away with them."14
Unangan Cultural
Artifacts
Examples of Unangan cultural artifacts can be seen in
the line drawings below. These artifacts
represent the main tools, implements, weapons, clothing and
decorations used by the Aleut before the arrival of the
Russians. A brief descriptive text that describes these
artifacts was written by George Quimby from the Chicago Natural
History Museum and can be read here.7 The black and white
print showing an Unangan man and woman (and a Russian dog!) was
made by Martin Sauer on the Billings Expedition in about 1787.
Click on the small images below to see larger versions.
Traditional Unangan culture is a good example
of cultural and social evolution. The
extremely demanding conditions of the Aleutian natural
environment plus the abundance of natural marine and
land resources provided optimal conditions for very
sophisticated cultural achievements. The natural forces
of wind, cold temperatures and rough seas were overcome
by the Aleuts through the use of very sophisticated
technology created over thousands of years. Without
metals and by using only what nature provided locally,
they crafted effective and unique techologies. Bone,
stone, sinews, skins and natural fibers were skillfully
turned into useful tools and products. This technology
used the whole spectrum of marine mammals, fish, birds,
plants and land animals to create finely honed tools,
clothing, housing materials and food. The result was
that the Unangan actually lived a relatively prosperous
life with sufficient extra time for art, music, dancing
and ritual carried along by a strong oral tradition.
The images here give a hint of the variety and
complexity of the Unangan cultural artifacts.
Traditional
implements used by Unangan men and women, as sketched by
Captain Levashov at Unalaska in about 1768.21 Click on image to see larger version.
Aleut Fisherman's Hat
This Unangan visor was collected by J.H. Turner in the Aleutian
Islands on April 9, 1892 and is now in the Anthropology collection of
the National Museum of Natural History.
These visor/hats were used by all Aleut baidarka paddlers when they
went to sea. The visor protected the paddler's eyes from the glare of
the sky and sun and made it easier to see clearly over the open water. These
visors were used while hunting sea mammals and while fishing. Hat
ornamentation was often very complex and told of the owner's status and
wealth.
"Aleut basketry is some of the finest in the world,
and the tradition began in prehistoric times. Early Aleut women
created baskets and woven mats of exceptional technical quality
using only an elongated and sharpened thumbnail as a tool.
Today, Aleut weavers continue to produce woven pieces of a
remarkable cloth-like texture, works of modern art with roots in
ancient tradition. The Aleut term for grass basket is qiigam
aygaaxsii."10
"Aleut basket-making reached its zenith between 1850 and 1919.
By the 1880s, Aleut weaving flourished, stimulated by the
prospect of cash sales or trade for imported goods. .... The
three major styles of contemporary Aleut weaving, Attu, Atka,
and Unalaska are named for the islands where they originated.
The Unalaska style basket is woven on all the other islands
except Umnak. .... The majority of the State Museum's Aleut
basketry collection dates from historic times. It consists of
open baskets, cigar/card cases, basketry belts, napkin rings,
basketry-covered bottles and inkwells, mats, fish baskets,
thimble baskets, and "May" baskets."26
The Aleut basket on the right was collected on Attu Island
in 1896 by Col. David D. Gaillard and now resides in the
Anthropology section of the National Museum of Natural
History. To see more images of this basket, please see the
webpage of the Digital Public Library of America (DPLA).
The DPLA has a large collection of Aleut/Unangan cultural
artifacts and digital images that can be downloaded under
the Creative Commons license.25
"Aleutian twined wallet of sea-grass. The
warp consists of a number of straws radiating from the bottom.
As the basket enlarges new straws are inserted, and the whole is
held in place by twine made of two straws, which inclose a warp
straw at each half turn. The cylindrical part of the vessel is
of the diamond pattern in figure 2 <above>. The
ornamentation is produced by embroidering with bits and strands
of red, blue, and black worsted, in no case showing on the
inside of the wallet. The continuous line between the diagonal
stripes is formed by whipping with a single thread of worsted on
the outer stitches of one of the twines of straw. Whipping with
single thread in this ware is not common. The border is formed
of the very complicated braid described in the text. Collected
in Attu, by Wm. H. Dall, Museum number 14978."24
The Aleut Iqyax or Baidarka:
The Unangan kayak was one of the most highly
refined sea-going vessels ever designed anywhere. The iqyax
enabled the Aleut to travel great distances in relative safety,
to pursue marine mammals and fish efficiently and to engage in
war. Without the baidarka, the Unangan culture could never have
occupied the entire Aleutian chain of islands and achieve its
great stability and sophistication.
"The baidars, or boats, of Oonalashka, are infinitely
superior to those of any other island. Its perfect
symmetry, smoothness, and proportion, constitute beauty, they
are beautiful; to me they appeared so beyond any thing that I
ever beheld. I have seen some of them as transparent as oiled
paper, through which you could trace every formation of the
inside, and the manner of the natives sitting in it; whose light
dress, painted and plumed bonnet, together with his perfect ease
and activity, added infinitely to its elegance. Their first
appearance struck me with amazement beyond expression. We were
in the offings, eight miles from shore, when they came about us.
There was little wind, but a great swell of the sea: some we
took on board with their boats ; others continued rowing about
the ship. Nearer in with the land we had a strong rippling
current in our favour, at the rate of three miles and a half,
the sea breaking violently over the shoals, and on the rocks.
The natives, observing our astonishment at their agility and
skill, paddled in among the breakers, which reached to their
breasts, and carried the baidars quite under water; sporting
about more like amphibious animals than human beings...... They
row with ease, in a sea moderately smooth, about ten miles in
the hour, and they keep the sea in a fresh gale of wind. The
paddles that they use are double, seven or eight feet long, and
made equally neat with the other articles."20
"The kayak developed as a hunting craft, its
evolution a vicious circle encompassing kayak, hunter, and
prey. One kayak was required to obtain the game to sustain and
clothe the hunter while building another kayak, in turn required
to hunt down the materials to build further kayaks: thus kayak
evolution cycled forward from year to year. The kayak competed
in speed, stealth, and stamina against a wide range of
amphibious vertebrates---including fellow kayaks, both in
peacetime and in war. In the North Pacific, after many
thousands of years, the Aleut baidarka emerged as the most
successful of the results."8
"Driftwood and the skin of sea mammals are the
only elements used in the construction of a kayak. The use of
bone pegs to fasten the pieces of wood disappeared during the
nineteenth century and was replaced by another system of
attachment: thongs made from the tendons of whales (or sea
lions) wrapped around the pieces to be joined or passed through
holes drilled in each of the two pieces and tied.
The sea mammal skins used to cover the
kayaks were essentially the skin of the sea lion (Eumetopias
jubata Schreber), which is thick and tough, or, if this was not
available, for smaller craft (one-man kayaks), the skin of the
common seal (Phoca vitulina L). This however, is smaller and not
as strong. "22
Baidarkas from Unalaska (Aleut) and Kodiak (Alutiiq):
These two kayaks had very different styles. The Aleut style was
long and slender and it enabled the Unangan to travel long
distances in the ocean safely and quickly. The Aleut style of
baidarka has been copied by many modern kayak builders using
modern materials.23 Click on image for larger version.
Aleuts in their baidarkas in this 1826
Russian drawing are hurling spears, one man using a
throwing-board. Click on drawing for a larger version.
The Unangan kayak was admired and sketched
by a number of international travelers who visited the
Aleutian Islands in the 18th and 19th Centuries. The black
and white sketchs below were part of a series made by Henry
Elliott in the 1870s showing Aleuts using kayaks at sea for
fishing halibut, hunting whales and sea otters. A French
voyage around the world (which has yet to be found in the
literature) passed through the Aleutians and a sketch was made
of the baidarka (seen below) that shows the outside
appearance, complete with throwing board and arrows or
harpoons on the deck. The complex flexible interior wooden
frame of the kayak is also shown in detail. The skin of the
kayak was made from Sea Lion or Hair Seal skins.
Over time, three types of baidarkas evolved.
"The one man kayak (iqax in Aleut) was the most common form at
the time of the discovery of the Aleutian Islands by Russian
colonizers..... The two man kayak (ulluxtadaq in Aleut),
which was still rare in the early nineteenth century, is
mentioned by Cook, Levasheff and Langsdorff as being reserved
for village chieftains with a "servant" to operate it, or is
described as being used to train young men in hunting and
navigation, under the direction of an experienced hunter....
The three man kayak (ulluxtaq in Aleut) is unanimously
considered a later creation, linked to the presence of the
Russians, and used to carry administrators, traders or priests
from island to island. The foreigner then occupied the central
position between the two paddlers."9
An excellent original study done by Joelle Robert-Lamblin
with the expert help from Bill Tcheripanoff, baidarka builder
from Akutan, can be seen here in English translation.
The Unangan/Aleut Bidara (nigilax) shown
below is from the von Langsdorff expedition that traveled
through the Unimak area in 1807. The bidara was a large skin
boat capable of carrying many people. It had seats for 16
rowers but could accomodate many more passengers and cargo.
It is similar in form and function to the Eskimo Umiak.
...the Aleutians make a sort of large open leather boat,
called a baidar, which will hold fifteen or twenty persons.
These boats were formerly the common property of a whole
village, but they are now all in the possession of the
Russio-American Company, and are used by them in their
ordinary business; as, for example, for towing trunks of
trees on shore, for carrying goods to and from their ships
at their arrival or departure, or for towing home a whale,
when one has been killed.12
Notes accompanying drawing: a) the keel b)
the rear piece, which is fastened together with the keel c)
the board, which rests on the keel d) cross laths which lie
on the keel e) poles, which lie at the ends of the cross
laths f) the ribs, over which the stretched skin is pulled,
and which are fastened to the lower cross laths g) the upper
edge laths, which are fastened to the stretched skin h)
laths on the inner portion of the sides, on which the
benches lie I) the sitting benches k) thong twined together,
which are placed in 3 or 4 places under the benches, so that
the baidar cannot break asunder in the waves. No rails are
used for the fastening, instead the pieces are made fast
with baleen or sinew. The entire skeleton, or framework, is
finally covered with sewn-together seal pelts m) the
steering paddle.11
Unangan Use of Wild
Plants
The Unangan/Aleut people used the local wild plants
extensively for food, medicines and fiber. Although
much of the original knowledge about the use of plants has been
lost locally, Aleut people still use some of the plants on a
regular basis.
One of the most commonly used plants is the "Putchki"
or Cow Parsnip, (saqudax') which is eaten by people,
especially children, in the spring when the stalks are crisp and
juicy. The flavor resembles a strong celery taste. Putchki was
also used for fuel, poultice and tea.6 It often
grows on old Unangan village sites.
Another plant that was used for food is the Purple
Orchid (quungdiix'), whose roots were cooked and
eaten.6 This plant is one of the first to bloom in
early spring time.
The fibers for the fine Aleut basketry came primarily from a
common grass that grows luxuriantly along the beach. This grass
is called Wild Rye Grass or Taxyux' in
Unangan. This grass was also used for making carpets, mats,
capes etc.6
Whale hunting was done with the help of a potent poison made
from a tall fall-blooming aconite called Monk's Hood or "Bumble
Bee flower" (anusnaadam ulanquin). The poison was
made from the boiled roots and was smeared on the harpoon tips
that pierced the whale.6
Much more information on the local flora and
its traditional uses can be found on the Unimak
Geography/Plants page of this website here.
The traditional uses of plants by the Unangan people
can be seen in more detail in a report published by CAFF
(Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna) here.
References:
1) Hodge, Frederick Webb, Handbook of Indians North of
Mexico, USGPO, 1907, pg. 36
2) Seal and Salmon Fisheries and General Resources of
Alaska, chapter by Ivan Petroff, USGPO, 1898, pg. 196,
Google eBook
3) Turner, Lucien M., An Aleutian Ethnography. Edited
by Raymond L. Hudson, Univ. Alaska Press, 2008, pg. xiii
4) Black, Lydia T., The History and Ethnohistory of the
Aleutians East Borough. Limestone Press, 1999. Each AEB
village is covered in detail.
5) Dyson, George, Form and Function of the Baidarka:the
Framework of Design, Baidarka Historical Society, Dean
Anderson, 1991.
(http://books.google.com/books?id=oGFHP-79tnQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false)
6) Veltre, et al, "Aleut/Unungax' Ethnobotany: An Annotated
Bibliography" CAFF Technical Report No. 14, 2006
7) Quimby, George I. "Aleutian Islanders; Eskimos of the North
Pacific", Chicago Natural History Museum Anthropology Leaflet
35, 1944. (retrieved from the Internet:
http://openlibrary.org/books/OL7151107M/Aleutian_islanders)
8) Dyson, George "Form and Function of the Baidarka: the
framework of design", Baidarka Historical Society, Dean
anderson, 1991, pg 2
9) Robert-Lamblin, Joell "The Aleut Kayak As Seen By Its
Builder And User And The Sea Otter Hunt" 1980, found at:
http://www.arctickayaks.com/PDF/Robert-Lamblin1980/robert-lamblin.htm
10) Wikipedia: Aleut People
11) Library of Congress:
http://content.lib.washington.edu/cdm4/item_viewer.php?CISOROOT=/loc&CISOPTR=2247
12) Langsdorff, Georg Heinrich “Voyages and travels in various
parts of the world: during the years 1803-1807.” H. Colburn,
1817, Google eBook
13) Hoffman, Brian W. (1999) "Agayadan Village: Household
Archeology on Unimak Island, Alaska", Journal of Field
Archeology, v.26, pp. 147-161.
14) Petroff, Ivan (1884) Report on the Population, Industries
and Resources of Alaska., USGPO, Washington (section on Aleut
Customs, translated by Petroff from Veniaminov's "Notes on the
Ounalashka District")
http://www.archive.org/stream/reportonpopulati00petruoft#page/n3/mode/2u
15) Maschner, Herbert D.G. (1999), "Prologue to the Prehistory
of the Lower Alaska Peninsula." Arctic Anthropology,
v.36, n.1-2, pp 84-102
16) Maschner, Herbert D., (2009), "An Introduction to the
Biocomplexity of Sanak Island, Western Gulf of Alaska.", Pacific
Science, vol. 63, no. 4, p.682
17) Veltre, Douglas W. "Perspectives on Aleut Culture Change
during the Russian Period." (1990), in: Russian America:
The Forgotten Frontier. Edited by Barbara Sweetland Smith
and Redmond J. Barnett. Washington State Historical Society,
Tacoma pp. 175-183.
18) Veltre, Douglas W. & Smith, Melvin A., (2010)
"Historical Overview of Archaeological Research in the Aleut
Region of Alaska.", Human Biology, Oct-Dec 2010, v.
82, nos. 5-6, pp. 487-506
19) Veltre, Douglas, W. (1999), "Environmental Perspectives on
Historical Period Culture Change among the Aleuts of
Southwestern Alaska." Proceedings of the 13th International
Abashiri Symposium, Hokkaido Museum of Northern Peoples,
Abashiri, Japan. pp. 1-12.
20) Sauer, Martin “An account of a geographical and astronomical
expidition to the northern parts of Russia, Commodore Joseph
Billings, 1785-1794.”, T. Cadell, 1802 Google eBooks, pg 155
21) Davydov, G.I., "Two Voyages to Russian America, 1802-1807",
Trans. by Colin Bearne, Limestone Press, 1977 (see note on
center pictures in center of book about Levashov; images from
Oregon Historical Society)
22) Robert-Lamblin, "The Aleut Kayak As Seen by Its Builder and
User and The Sea Otter Hunt.", 1980, located at:
http://www.arctickayaks.com/PDF/Robert-Lamblin1980/robert-lamblin.htm
23) Dyson, George B. "Baidarka: The Kayak", Alaska Northwest
Books, 1986
24) Mason, Otis Tufton "Basket-works of the North American
Aborigines", Plate 1, Gov't Printing Office, Washington, 1890,
Google eBook
25)
http://collections.si.edu/search/results.htm?q=record_ID%3Anmnhanthropology_8384439&repo=DPLA
26) Hulbert, Bette, "Aleut Basketry Collection of the Alaska
State Museum" in Concepts,
a reprint of Northern Notebook No. 3, Technical Paper 10,
October 1999.